Research in Agricultural Engineering - Latest articles
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Biodegradable seedling pots from sawdust and spent mushroom compost
Joseph Kofi Conduah, Francis Kumi, Hans Fumba Murangaza, Seth Osei
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):247-258 | DOI: 10.17221/116/2025-RAE 
Circular bioeconomy is rapidly gaining ground in the agricultural sector with priority given to the utilisation of more environmentally friendly materials for production and processing. Thus, in this study, biodegradable seedling pots were developed using sawdust (SD) and spent mushroom compost (SMC) as a sustainable alternative to plastic containers. Four pots composed of SMC : SD ratios of 100 : 0, 70 : 30, 60 : 40, and 50 : 50 were developed and evaluated. The mechanical properties, structural characteristics, and water absorption capacity of the pots were assessed and seedlings were made to grow in them to monitor the growth support potential....
Architecture of a cyber-physical system for washing agricultural machinery
Anatoliy Tryhuba, Orest Filkin, Inna Тryhuba, Andriy Tatomyr, Oksana Malanchuk
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):235-246
This paper presents the architecture of a cyber-physical system for the automated washing of agricultural machinery, designed to enhance efficiency and intelligent control. The system includes four layers – physical, sensor, computational, and interface and integrates actuators, sensors, decision-making modules, and analytics. A Python-based simulation using Control and SimPy showed an average washing time of 10.4 minutes and 97.5% cycle initiation accuracy under critical contamination. The Control was achieved via gated recurrent unit (GRU) prediction and proportional–integral–derivative (PID) regulation. Despite assumptions like...
Effect of foam-mat drying conditions on drying rate and anthocyanin content in purple sweet potato powder
Chi Dung Nguyen, Van Hao Hong , Ngoc Giau Tran, Minh Thuy Nguyen, Van Tai Ngo
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):224-234 | DOI: 10.17221/84/2025-RAE
The study aimed to optimise foam-mat drying parameters for producing purple-fleshed sweet potato (PFSP) powder. Egg albumin (EA) (5–15%), xanthan gum (XG) (0.1–0.5%), and drying temperature (50–70 °C) were used as independent variables for optimisation via Response Surface Methodology with a Box-Behnken design. The response variables (drying rate and anthocyanin content) were assessed by 18 treatments, which included 6 central points. The analysis of variance showed a high coefficient of determination (> 88%) between predicted and experimental values across all models. Optimal foam-mat drying conditions were 11.02% EA, 0.34% XG,...
Detection of heat-stressed chickens in poultry house based on deep network and optical flow vectors in the Fourier domain
Ngo Quoc Viet, Thai Yen
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):189-199 | DOI: 10.17221/46/2025-RAE
The productivity and quality of the entire flock are negatively impacted by heat stress in chickens, which can have major repercussions, particularly in crowded farming settings where diseases are easy to spread and hard to control. This study uses deep networks and optical flow to identify heat stress in chickens. The technique focuses on identifying obvious signs of heat stress, such as panting and open-mouth breathing in chickens. There are two phases to the suggested approach: (1) using a deep network to detect open-mouth breathing in chickens; (2) using the Gunnar Farnebäck algorithm to compute the optical flow vectors of the wattle, the breathing...
Study on the drying kinetics of Rosa flower buds using different drying methods
Hamid Reza Gazor, Omid Reza Roustapour
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):213-223 | DOI: 10.17221/43/2025-RAE
This study investigated the drying kinetics of Rosa flower buds (Rosa damascene Mill) under environmental conditions (shade), as well as in direct and indirect solar dryers. The effects of 40 °C, 50 °C, and 60 °C temperatures on the drying of the buds were also examined using a laboratory cabinet dryer. The drying rate of the Rosa flower buds was compared with various mathematical models, and the parameters of these models were evaluated. The results illustrated that drying Rosa flower buds under shade required a lengthy period time of approximately 13 days. In contrast, utilising solar dryers significantly reduced...
Optimisation of the irrigation requirement of okra under protected cultivation using a digital lysimeter
Sujitha Elango, Nagarajan Madasamy, Valliammai Annamalai, Vijayaprabhakar Arumugam
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(4):200-212 | DOI: 10.17221/31/2025-RAE
A field experiment was conducted in 2023 and 2024 to determine stage-specific crop coefficient values of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) using the popular F1 hybrid Arka Nikita. Six evapotranspiration (ETc) based treatments were applied: five under a forced ventilated greenhouse (T1 = 120% ETc, T2 = 100% ETc, T3 = 80% ETc, T4 = 60% ETc, T5 = 100% ETc in lysimeter) and one under open field (T6 = 100% ETc) arranged in a completely randomised block design...
Free electricity tandem-twin-hybrid solar-biomass dryer increased the performance of coffee cherry drying
Yuwana Yuwana, Syafnil Syafnil
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):174-187 | DOI: 10.17221/98/2024-RAE
A free electricity tandem-twin-hybrid-solar-biomass dryer comprised of two drying rooms and operated with solar and biomass energy combustion of 10 kg rubber wood per hour separately to dry Robusta coffee cherries with 3, 6, 9, and 12 cm bed thicknesses were studied with the drying completion time (tc), number of defects (ND), and colour parameters, i.e., lightness (L*), hue angle [H(o)], and chroma (C), used as the performance indicators. The experimental results indicated that the drying room, bed thickness, and drying room-bed thickness interaction significantly affected the tc and ND...
Rheological properties of banana fruit in the creep test: Effect of variety and ripeness level
Nursigit Bintoro, Bambang Purwantana, Bayu Nugraha, Surya Abdul Muttalib, Slamet Sulistiadi, Vivien Fathuroya
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):163-173 | DOI: 10.17221/12/2025-RAE
Banana quality is influenced by many factors, including variety and level of fruit ripeness. This quality can be evaluated from various points of view, one of which is the rheological consideration. Rheological properties are very important to study because they determine the design of equipment and processes, and minimise product damage. The aim of this research was to analyse and model the effect of variety and ripeness level on the rheological properties of banana fruit by applying a creep test. This research was carried out using a factorial experimental design 3 × 3 with 5 replications. Three varieties of banana, namely Ambon (Musa parasidiaca...
Optimisation of the temperature and drying time of kaffir lime leaves (Citrus hystrix DC.) using Response Surface Methodology
Asri Widyasanti, Sintia Nabila Putri, Rahmat Budiarto, Nor Nadiah Abdul Karim Shah
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):155-162 | DOI: 10.17221/94/2024-RAE
This study optimised the drying process of kaffir lime leaves (Citrus hystrix DC.) to extend the shelf life and preserve the quality by reducing the moisture content. A Central Composite Design (CCD) under the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) framework was employed, with the temperature (55 °C, 60 °C, 65 °C) and drying time (5, 5.5, 6 h) as the variables. Experiments were conducted with a mechanical food dehydrator, and the parameters evaluated included the water content and drying yields. The optimal condition was identified as 60 °C for 5 h, resulting in a drying yield of 33.3% and a final moisture content of 7.153 (% w.b.), which...
Addressing water scarcity in agriculture through small reservoir construction in Kashkadarya Province
Khojiakbar Khasanov, Masharif Bakiev, Oqil Rasulov, Nodira Babajanova, Ilhom Abdurahmanov
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):143-154 | DOI: 10.17221/20/2025-RAE
This study explores the construction of small reservoirs (SRs) as a strategic solution to address water scarcity in Kashkadarya Province, Uzbekistan, where agricultural productivity is heavily dependent on irrigation. By utilising geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) technologies, optimal locations for reservoirs were identified, focusing on improving the water availability for irrigation during critical periods. The research highlights the socio-economic and environmental benefits of SRs, including enhanced agricultural yields, increased employment opportunities, and reduced reliance on energy-intensive pumping stations. The...
Balancing quality and safety: Optimising drying and sodium metabisulphite use in low-fat desiccated coconut
Indriati Cahyadewi, Waqif Agusta, Rumpoko Wicaksono, Tantry Eko Putri Mariastuty, Lusiana Kresnawati Hartono, Herdiarti Destika Hermansyah, Farah Nuranjani
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):130-142 | DOI: 10.17221/3/2025-RAE
Indonesia, as a leading coconut producer, generates a substantial amount of coconut pulp from coconut milk extraction, which can be further processed into low-fat desiccated coconut. However, the drying process induces browning, reducing its whiteness and overall quality. Sodium metabisulphite is commonly used to prevent browning, but excessive use raises health concerns. In this study, the optimisation of the drying temperature and sodium metabisulphite concentration was conducted to minimise the browning while maintaining the quality of low-fat desiccated coconut. Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a Central Composite Design (CCD),...
Modelling for a land suitability analysis of rice terraces on the upland area using the geographic information system (GIS) and analytical hierarchical process (AHP)
Razali, Rahmawaty, Chairani Hanum, Zulkifli Nasution
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(3):121-129 | DOI: 10.17221/101/2024-RAE
Rice fields are the main source of rice production. Rice field expansion is one way to increase rice production. Rice field expansion activities for the upland area in Indonesia are often overlooked due to limited information about the availability of suitable land. In upland areas, rice terraces are often found. Until now, there has been no guideline for determining the suitable location of rice terraces on upland areas. The purpose of this study was to develop a land suitability assessment model for rice terraces using geographic information system (GIS) and the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) on upland areas like the Lake Toba catchment area....
Enhancing the destructive egg quality assessment using the machine vision and feature extraction technique
Ehsan Sheidaee, Pourya Bazyar
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):95-104 | DOI: 10.17221/86/2024-RAE
The rapid growth of the food industry necessitates rigorous quality control, particularly in egg production. This study explores advanced methodologies for egg quality assessment by integrating the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), and k-Nearest Neighbour (KNN) with machine vision techniques. While traditional destructive methods like measuring the Haugh unit (HU) offer direct insights, but render eggs unusable, non-destructive techniques, such as imaging and spectroscopy, allow continuous quality monitoring. Over a 20-day period, egg samples were evaluated using a digital camera to capture key parameters like...
Perception of bimodal warning cues during remote supervision of autonomous agricultural machines
Anita Chidera Ezeagba, Cheryl Mary Glazebrook, Daniel Delmar Mann
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):69-79 | DOI: 10.17221/73/2024-RAE
Agricultural machines that are fully autonomous will still need human supervisors to monitor and troubleshoot system failures. Recognising the emergency as soon as possible is crucial to reduce adverse effects. The ability of humans to detect visual, auditory, or tactile cues is usually enabled by warning systems. The effectiveness of different warning cues varies in terms of prompting a quick response. The study’s objective was to compare the effectiveness of two bimodal warnings (i.e., visual-auditory and visual-tactile) at eliciting supervisor perception (which equates to level one situation awareness). Twenty-five participants engaged in...
Camera systems and their user recognition reliability when entering an agri-food complex
Jaroslav Mrázek, Jakub Vo¹áhlík, Eva Olmrová, Martin Pexa, Zdenìk Ale¹, Jakub Èedík
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):105-112 | DOI: 10.17221/35/2025-RAE
This study evaluates the efficiency of various facial recognition camera systems used to control access in agri-food production environments, focusing on their ability to identify individuals based on biometric facial traits. It is also important to prevent the movement of unwanted persons into the production premises in the agri-food complex. The main goal was to assess how these factors influence the recognition performance and to determine the most reliable system for preventing unauthorised entry. The results show notable performance disparities between the devices tested. It can be concluded in this research that there are statistically significant...
Stability of soil moisture sensors for agricultural crop cultivation
Sitti Nur Faridah, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal, Tisha Aditya A. Jamaluddin, Andini Dani Achmad, Muhammad Adi Surya
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):88-94 | DOI: 10.17221/33/2024-RAE
Soil water content is critical in plants’ morphological and physiological processes; therefore, water must always be available in appropriate quantities to meet plant growth needs. Soil moisture can be easily detected using sensors, which offer a practical solution for monitoring water content in the soil. However, using sensors for a long time, especially on agricultural land, will reduce sensor accuracy. This research aims to investigate the accuracy of soil moisture sensors during their use for cultivating crops. Using sensors in sandy clay soil can detect soil moisture levels with an accuracy of 93.80% and a precision of 90.81%. A reading...
Spoilage detection of tomatoes using a convolutional neural network
Ninja Begum, Manuj Kumar Hazarika
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):80-87 | DOI: 10.17221/31/2024-RAE
With the increasing productivity in agriculture, it has become extremely essential to look for an advanced technique that will help to minimise losses. Recently, deep learning has outperformed the task of recognition and classification of fruits and vegetables automatically from images, finding applicability in this study. This work, thus, attempts to develop an automatic spoilage detection CNN model for tomatoes. In this work, a deep learning-based CNN model is trained and validated on a self-prepared dataset for classifying tomatoes as edible and spoilt is proposed. The dataset consisted of 810 images, out of which 572 images were considered...
Portable analogue-based electronic moisture meter for root-crop chips
James Roy Lesidan, Mencius Lesidan, Melvin Hagonob, Charlie Andan, Ma. Grace Sumaria, Ronaldo Almencion, Kebin Ysrael Martinez
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(2):113-120 | DOI: 10.17221/15/2025-RAE
Moisture content regulation of root crops is crucial in post-harvest processing operations, not only in the price stipulation but also to avoid aflatoxin contamination. To prolong their storage life, they are processed into dried chips to extend their usability in feed formulations and starches. In this study, we use the capacitance-based method to evaluate the performance of an analogue-based electronic meter for the cassava, sweet potato, and taro chips. The meter was calibrated against the oven-drying method, yielding high R2 values of the different root crops. The established calibration models were validated and revealed...
Use of thermal imaging camera for wild animal detection along roads
Jiøí Bro¾ovský, Veronika Hartová, Martin Kotek, Jan Hart, Jitka Kumhálová
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):60-67 | DOI: 10.17221/88/2024-RAE
Vehicle collisions with wild animals are a common problem on roads, having a significant impact on road safety and wildlife populations. Collisions with wild animals are one of the most frequent road accidents. According to police statistics, there were nearly 16 000 road accidents caused by collisions with animals in the Czech Republic in 2019. Collisions with deer are the most common. There are several technologies and measures that can help reduce the risk of a vehicle colliding with a wild animal. One of the technologies used is a night vision system based on infrared spectrum sensing. This technology is slowly becoming part of the...
Particle motion in mixed flow dryers: The effect of the wall inclination angle and friction
Adrienn Bablena, János Beke, István Keppler
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):50-59 | DOI: 10.17221/51/2024-RAE
In Europe, the weather patterns require harvested grain crops to be dried before storage to prevent significant quality loss. The uneven movement of grains inside the drying equipment is a key issue affecting the drying process, causing under- or over drying the harvested crops and thus leading to quality degradation and ultimately to financial losses. To characterise the unevenness of material flow, we introduced a dimensionless displacement ratio. This dimensionless parameter was suitable for comparing the uniformity of the material movement processes within the dryer. Using experimental investigations and numerical simulations, we determined the...
Development of smart micro-irrigation system using Arduino Uno for okra cultivation in Bangladesh
Sharmin Akter, Md Mostafizar Rahman, Rafatul Zannat, Md Masud Rana, Md Moinul Hossain Oliver, Md Aslam Ali
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):38-49 | DOI: 10.17221/18/2024-RAE
Conventional irrigation practices result in a substantial amount of water loss with okra cultivation. Although micro-irrigation can address this issue by delivering water directly near the rootzone, it requires manual operation. These issues, however, can be resolved with the introduction of a smart micro-irrigation system. This study aims to develop a smart micro-irrigation system for okra, in conjunction with the sub-components of drip irrigation, a microcontroller, and a soil sensor. The experiment was laid out with a randomised complete block design (RCBD) having three treatments: (i) control irrigation (T1), (ii)...
An effective machine learning model for the estimation of reference evapotranspiration under data-limited conditions
Saravanan Karuppanan, Saravanan Ramasamy, Balaji Lakshminarayanan, Sreemanthrarupini Nariangadu Anuthaman
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):22-37 | DOI: 10.17221/101/2023-RAE
Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is a vital hydrological component influenced by various climate variables that impact the water and energy balances. It plays a crucial role in determining crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling. Despite the availability of numerous approaches for estimation, accurate and reliable ETo estimation is essential for effective irrigation water management. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the most suitable machine learning model for assessing ETo using observed daily values of limited input parameters in tropical savannah climate regions. Three...
Anaerobic bio-processing of agricultural waste for the biotechnological production of lactic acid and volatile fatty acid by landfill soil inoculums
Andriy Anta Kacaribu, Darwin Darwin, Yuliani Aisyah, Febriani
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):10-21 | DOI: 10.17221/52/2024-RAE
With the increase in the world population and the ensuing surge in organic waste, effective management strategies are crucial to prevent environmental pollution. This study aims to address this challenge by utilising organic waste (OW) as the substrate for the production of lactic acid (LA) and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) through anaerobic bioprocessing. The substrates used, included grass, starch, and fruit wastes inoculated with non-sterile inoculum landfill soil (LS). The anaerobic bioconversion was performed by varying the substrate to the inoculum. The results unveil that a digester loaded with 150 g·L–1 of fruit waste,...
Towards interpretability: Assessment of residual networks for tomato leaf disease classification
Raphael Berdin, Rob Christian Caduyac
Res. Agr. Eng., 2025, 71(1):1-9 | DOI: 10.17221/67/2024-RAE
The tomato occupies a prominent place in the Philippines’ agricultural economy. However, tomato leaf diseases are challenges in tomato crop production leading to economic losses. Among the tomato leaf diseases, early blight and Septoria leaf spot are prevalent in the Philippines due to the climate. Thus, the accurate identification of diseases affecting tomato leaves is essential. Currently, a visual inspection is the primary method for diagnosing tomato leaf diseases which is time-consuming and inefficient. This study aims to develop a quantized Residual Network with convolutional 50 layer (ResNet-50) based model to classify tomato leaves...
Ergonomic investigation on spraying task performance in paddy farming activities
Dian Mardi Safitri, Novia Rahmawati, Winnie Septiani, Nora Azmi, Azizah Nurul Hanifati, Ummi Noor Nazahiah binti Abdullah, Norashiken binti Othman
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):226-236 | DOI: 10.17221/80/2023-RAE
The commodity rice in Indonesia and the administration of rice fields are given particular focus by the government. Spraying activities are known to increase the risk of exposure to chemicals for farmers, resulting in a loss of working days for 3–7 days. It is necessary to carry out ergonomic interventions for spraying activities to make the activity safer for farmers. This research aims to identify the ergonomics and safety problems of spraying activities in rice field farming, to analyse and develop intervention parameters to solve issues in spraying activities, and to generate innovative design concepts to overcome spraying problems. Prospective...
Geometrical analysis of 3-point linkage of tractors for measurement and display of implement’s working depth
P K Pranav, Anmol Kumar, Abhishek Kumar Ansh, Sanjay Kumar
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):237-244 | DOI: 10.17221/23/2024-RAE
The display of the depth of operation on tractors' dashboards facilitates the operator in achieving precise operation. In this study, the depth of operation of a mounted implement was measured and digitally displayed on a tractor's dashboard. The change in depth of operation was sensed by measuring the rotation of the rocker arm of the tractor's hydraulic system. The measured angle of rotation was multiplied by a calibration factor to convert it into the actual depth of operation in centimetres. For the calibration factor, a geometrical analysis of the three-point linkage was carried out, and a mathematical relationship was established based...
Prediction of physicochemical characteristics of Lemon (Citrus limon cv. Montaji Agrihorti) using Vis-NIR spectroscopy and machine learning model
Jihan Nada Salsabila Erha, Dina Wahyu Indriani, Zaqlul Iqbal, Bambang Susilo, Dimas Firmanda Al Riza
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):218-225 | DOI: 10.17221/25/2024-RAE
Lemons are fruit products that grow well in Indonesia. Montaji Agrihorti is one of the lemon varieties found in Indonesia, a new variety developed by Balitjestro breeding. This lemon variety is seedless. In fact, lemons are harvested nearly all year-round. Equally important, evaluating the fruit's maturity level is crucial for determining the optimal harvest time. In this study, standardizing measurement on maturity level was conducted through Vis-NIR spectroscopy and machine learning models. In this case, non-destructive data from Vis-NIR spectroscopy were correlated with parameters related to fruit maturity and quality, such as soluble solid content...
Modeling and optimization of dynamic isothermal compressibility features on flowability of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl nutshell powder
James Chinaka Ehiem, Victor Ifeanyichukwu Obiora Ndirika, Udochukwu Nelson Onwuka, Raghavan Vijayan
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):209-217 | DOI: 10.17221/24/2024-RAE
The compressibility features (bulk density, tapped bulk density, porosity, coefficient of compressibility and Hauser ratio) of Canarium schweinfurthii engl. nutshell powder as it affects flowability during densification process were investigated. Three different moisture contents (10.13, 15.07 and 20.11% wet basis; w.b.) and particle sizes of 0.659 7, 1.26 and 2.05 mm were considered at pressure range of 2 to 10 MPa. The compressibility relationship with the factors were modelled and the optimum flow conditions were also determined. The obtained results showed that particle size and moisture content had incremental influence on the...
Modelling of energy demand prediction system in potato farming using deep learning method
Riswanti Sigalingging, Nasha Putri Sebayang, Noverita Sprinse Vinolina, Lukman Adlin Harahap
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):198-208 | DOI: 10.17221/115/2023-RAE
Agriculture and energy are intricately connected, with agriculture being a significant energy consumer and supplier. In this comprehensive study, SPSS and Jupyter Notebook were used to model and predict the energy requirements of potato plants during cultivation. A system using deep learning methods, specifically the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), was also developed to accurately predict the classification of potato plant growth phases using image data. The CNN model, developed with 100 epochs and 5 layers, used 1 125 image data of potato plants, categorising them into two classes: the vegetative phase, with an energy requirement of 4 195.80 MJ·ha–1,...
Control of odour and gaseous emissions from livestock buildings: Recent research and developments
Roger Jay Lamadrid De Vela
Res. Agr. Eng., 2024, 70(4):181-197 | DOI: 10.17221/55/2024-RAE
One major challenge in the continuous growth of the livestock industry is the increased emission of odorous gases, which is not just a nuisance but also a cause of serious health and environmental concerns. Several strategies which aim to: (i) reduce the formation of odorous gases; (ii) enhance dispersion of odour; (iii) capture odour and gases to prevent escape to the environment; and (iv) reduce odour and gaseous concentrations, are developed. These are achieved with the use or employment of one or more of: (i) diet manipulation techniques; (ii) additives and adsorbents; (iii) covers; (iv) shelterbelts...